APPENDIX A4.5
CASES OF SUCCESSFUL
HABITAT ENHANCEMENT FOR SPECIES
INTRODUCTION
Habitat restoration (i.e. where formerly
present habitats are re-created) and enhancement are now commonly used tools
for species and habitat conservation management worldwide. Consequently there
is a large and rapidly growing knowledge and literature base on these subjects.
The wetland habitat restoration literature base alone is very large, with a
recent bibliography prepared by Kevin Erwin for the Wetlands International Wetland
Restoration Group listing over 1,000 papers (see Appendix 1). The Ramsar
Convention’s Resources on Wetland Restoration website (www.ramsar.org/strp_rest_bibl_index.htm)
lists Kevin Erwin’s bibliography and also provides the searchable USGS wetland restoration bibliography, which has
over 2000 entries, at http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/literatr/wetresto/wetresto.htm
Although it has been claimed that wetland restoration schemes have a low success rate, this is often because the restoration goals against which success has been measured have been too ambitious; some, for example, have attempted the restoration of complex natural ecosystems. Restoration that is aimed at providing suitable semi-natural habitats to support a target species (or a suite of similar species) have much higher rates of success.
Similarly, enhancement of habitats to increase their carrying capacity for target species (i.e. the numbers of breeding, feeding, or roosting individuals that can be supported) can now often be reliably achieved, particularly on semi-natural and artificial habitats. In the UK, for example, habitat enhancement is routinely successfully practiced on National Nature Reserves, Sites of Scientific Interest, reserves managed by conservation organisations such as the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, the National Trust, the Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust and County Wildlife Trusts as well as farmland areas managed under Environmentally Sensitive Area (ESA) Agreements and Countryside Stewardship (CS) Agreements.
There is as a result a large source of literature on habitat management and enhancement methods including key texts such as Woodland conservation and management (Peterken 1981), Managing wetlands and their birds (Fog et al. 1982), Peatland management handbook (Rowell 1988), Gravel pit restoration for wildlife (Andrews and Kinsman 1990), The lowland heathland management handbook (Gimingham 1992), Habitat management for invertebrates: a practical handbook (Kirby 1992), Farming and wildlife: a practical management handbook (Andrews and Rebane 1994), The new rivers and wildlife handbook (RSPB, NRA and RSNC 1994), Wetlands, industry and wildlife (Merrit 1994), The lowland grassland management handbook (Crofts and Jefferson 1994), Managing habitats for conservation (Sutherland and Hill 1995), Reedbed management for commercial and wildlife interests (Hawke and Jose 1996), The wet grassland guide: managing floodplain and coastal wet grasslands for wildlife (RSPB, EN, and ITE. 1997), Habitat creation and repair (Gilbert and Anderson 1998) European wet grassland: guidelines for management and restoration and (Benstead et al. 1999).
However, there is a much larger resource of other literature in relevant peer reviewed journals such as Aquatic Conservation, The Journal of Applied Ecology, The Journal of Ecological Restoration: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, Biological Conservation, The Journal of Wildlife Management, Ecological Engineering, The Journal of Ecological Management and Restoration, and Restoration Notes and Management Notes, together with more practical and practitioner targeted publications such as English Nature’s ENACT. Organisations such as the Farming and Wildlife Advisory Group also have advisors in all UK counties who provide advice on request to farmers on the enhancement of agricultural habitats for wildlife conservation purposes.
Such habitat enhancement
through conservation management is carried out over many millions of hectares
of land (covering 15% of agricultural land on ESAs alone) and costs many
millions of pounds, and would not be carried out if habitat enhancement was not
effective in providing significant conservation benefits. Monitoring is carried
out on many habitat enhancement schemes, including all ESAs and CS schemes and
many nature reserves. Results of monitoring have shown that such schemes are
effective in maintaining and often raising the carrying capacity of target
species. In many cases monitoring data are not published and not readily
available, as such data are primarily used for internal scheme appraisals and
ongoing management planning purposes. Nevertheless, even a rapid review of the
literature as carried out for this information paper revels a number of cases
where habitat enhancement has provided measurable and significant benefits for
target species. A few such case histories from the UK and elsewhere in Europe
are described below.
These examples clearly
demonstrate that habitat enhancement for particular species can be achieved.
Furthermore, although, these examples relate to temperate ecosystems and
species that mostly do not occur in Long Valley, it is evident that the habitat
measures employed are based on ecological principles that are relevant to the
wetland enhancement mitigation measures proposed for Long Valley. Key
enhancement measures typically focus on ensuring appropriate feeding, breeding
and roosting habitats for the species in question. Measures to achieve this for
wetland birds include maintaining mosaics of habitats with appropriate
substrates, water regimes, vegetation composition and particularly vegetation
structure. The key requirements of most species can usually be predicted on the
basis of a species’ general biology and ecology. Refinements of the management
prescriptions for particular species can then be made from autecological
studies of the species, as for example currently being carried out for the
Greater-painted Snipe (Rostratula
benghalensis) in Hong Kong.
CASE
HISTORIES
Grassland
management for the Corncrake (Crex crex)
in the Shannon Callows, Republic of Ireland (Source: Benstead et al. 1999; See Appendix 2).
The Shannon Callows consists of approximately 2,500 ha of lowland wet grassland on the floodplain of the River Shannon. The site is of considerable importance for waterbirds and is the remaining stronghold in the Republic of Ireland for the globally threatened Corncrake. However, the species’ habitat is threatened as a result of drainage and intensification of agricultural methods. Consequently, populations of the Corncrake have fallen sharply in the last few decades, with a national census indicating an 80% decline over the 5 years up to 1993.
Conservation management has been undertaken in the Shannon Callows through a number of schemes, including the Corncrake Grant Scheme, which specially aims to increase the reproductive success of the species breeding in the area by influencing land management practices. Management measures undertaken by participants in the scheme include:
· delaying the mowing of meadows until 1 August, thereby allowing the species to hatch two broods;
· adopting ‘Corncrake-friendly’ mowing techniques (which reduces mortality of birds); and
· the provision of vegetation cover for Corncrakes in the early and late part of their breeding season.
The results of monitoring Corncrake numbers in Ireland have shown that numbers increased between 1995 and 1996 by 35% and between 1995 and 1996 by a further 6% (which are the first recorded increases in numbers in Ireland since recording began). These results are attributed to the management measures for Corncrakes being undertaken. Within the Shannon Callows itself, numbers initially continued to fall before stabilising in 1997 and then increasing by 25% in 1998.
It is also considered that there will be benefits to other species from the Corncrake Scheme, including other ground-nesting birds and the maintenance of botanically diverse grasslands.
Management
of wet grassland for breeding waders in Vecdaugava Penisula, Latvia by burning,
mowing and grazing (Source: Benstead et al. 1999; see Appendix 3).
This site consists of an area of mixed brackish marsh and grassland surrounded by an oxbow lake and connected to the River Daugava. The habitats present are rare in Latvia and hold a number of nationally important populations of breeding waders. However, since 1988 the wet grasslands have deteriorated as a result of changes in agricultural activities, which has caused an increase in vegetation height and an expansion of reedbeds and scrub. As a result the sites have partially or totally lost their importance for breeding waders.
Conservation management has therefore been undertaken since 1993 to enhance the wetland habitat with the objective of restoring the breeding wader populations. This has involved burning of selected areas, followed by horse grazing in 1996 and mowing from 1997.
Monitoring of breeding waders has been undertaken annually from 1990 (before management started) to 1997 (except 1991). These data indicate that since the 1995 breeding season, wader numbers have been increasing, which can be attributed to the restoration and improved conservation management of the site.
Enhancement
of Holkham National Nature Reserve, England, through water level control,
grazing and mowing (Source: RSPB, EN and ITE 1997; see Appendix 4).
Holkham National Nature Reserve consists of 2,000 ha of coastal foreshore, saltmarsh, dunes, woodland and grazing marsh managed by English Nature. The site is of particular importance for its breeding and wintering waterbirds.
Within the reserve there is 401 ha of grazing marsh (permanent grassland) which has been subject to enhancement through water level management and grassland management. A hydrological study was firstly undertaken to determine appropriate locations for water level control structures, after which a series of pipes, dams and sluices were installed. Using these control structures partial flood conditions are created in winter on at least 10% of the area and spring flooding is retained for breeding waders and wildfowl, with at least 5% of the area remaining permanently flooded. Ditch clearance is also carried out on a 7-year rotational cycle. Grazing agreements have also been established with tenants, under which grazing is carried out from late spring (20 May) until mid-October, mainly by low densities of cattle. The use of fertilisers and herbicides is also limited and nests are protected from cattle trampling using cages. These measures create diverse vegetation with suitable sward composition and heights for breeding waders and wintering waterfowl, whilst minimising the destruction of nests by grazing animals.
The benefits of the management has included the creation of a mosaic of habitat types that have attracted increased numbers of breeding and wintering birds, in excess of planned targets. After the introduction of management in 1988 breeding waders, including Oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus), Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus), Snipe (Gallinago gallinago) and Redshank (Tringa tetanus) have increased, with numbers of Snipe and Lapwing reaching nationally important numbers. Winter waterfowl numbers have also increased, and the site is now internationally important for the numbers of duck and geese that it supports in winter.
Enhancement
of Berney Marshes, England, through water level management (Source: RSPB, EN
and ITE 1997; see Appendix 5).
Berney Marshes consists of 405 ha of predominantly coastal grazing marsh on the south-east coast of England. The site has species-poor grassland, but contains six nationally scare plants, a nationally rare dragonfly and is important for breeding and wintering waterbirds.
Habitat enhancement measures have included the installation of a network of foot drains (shallow ditches connected to deeper ditches) which help to control water levels within the marsh by supplying water to, or draining, the marsh according to water levels in the main ditches. As the soils on the site are mainly poorly-structured clays with low hydraulic conductivity, the network of foot drains considerably increases the area over which water levels can be manipulated.
Bird monitoring has shown that there have been large increases in wintering numbers of several water bird species since the management has been carried out. In particular the enhancement measures have created suitable conditions for internationally important numbers of Bewick’s Swans (Cygnus columbianus), and White-fronted Goose (Anser albifrons), Shoveler (Anas clypeata) and Ruff (Philomachus pugnax) have reached nationally important numbers. The foot drains have also been shown to hold high numbers of non-biting midge larvae, which are important food sources for many water birds. The drawdown of water levels in the spring concentrates these invertebrates into foot drains where they become an important resource for waterfowl and their young.
Enhancement
of Old Hall Marshes, England, through winter water storage (Source: RSPB, EN
and ITE 1997; see Appendix 6).
Old Hall marshes consists of 459 ha of mixed habitats on the south-east coast of England, of which 361 ha comprises agriculturally unimproved coastal grazing marsh. The site holds nationally important assemblages of breeding and wintering waterfowl, plants and invertebrates. The grazing marshes have been enhanced for these species groups by water level management and grazing.
The site is in an area with very low rainfall and high evaporation rates, and has no significant surface and groundwater supplies that can overcome summer water deficits. The existing network of ditches on the site has therefore been used to store winter rainfall and run-off supplemented with surface abstraction from a nearby watercourse. Water levels are allowed to fall naturally in the summer over most of the site, but on three of the water control units, water level falls are slowed by pumping from the largest hydrological unit, which acts as a reservoir.
As a result salinity fluctuations within the site have been reduced and the controlled drawdown produces throughout the spring/summer wet margins to water bodies, which are favoured by waders, whilst leaving sufficient open water for waterfowl. It should be noted that similar water level regimes are proposed for the wetland compensation areas in Long Valley, with controlled drawdown over the dry winter period.
The new water level management regime was instigated in the 1992/93 winter and has shown rapid and substantial conservation benefits. The water level management measures, together with appropriate grazing management, have increased the numbers of key breeding waterfowl from 58 pairs in 1991 (pre-management) to 197 pairs in 1994. Similarly, peak wintering numbers doubled between 1991/92 and 1993/94.
Enhancement
of Pulborough Brooks, England, through water level management, grazing and
mowing (Source: RSPB, EN and ITE 1997; see Appendix 7).
The Pulborough Brooks are part of the River Arun floodplain and include 147 ha of species-poor wet grassland and ditches. The site has been degraded as a result of drainage improvements and intensification of farming in the floodplain. Habitat enhancement works have therefore been carried out to increase the wildlife value by manipulation of water levels, grazing and mowing.
Key rehabilitation works have included a three to seven-year rotational ditch management programme. Under this, sections of drainage channel have been partially cleared of vegetation (on one side only at a time) and re-profiled to provide shallow margins. Spoil banks were also removed, to allow water to spill out over the grassland, and ditch intersections were modified to provide deep pools or islands.
The enhancement works were carried out in 1993/94 and substantially improved the habitats for waterbirds, e.g. by increasing the area of open water habitat for waterfowl and increasing the areas of shallow muddy banks, which provide ideal feeding conditions for many waders. Comparison of survey data between 1988 and 1993 (after management had started) indicate that numbers of Lapwing and Redshank doubled, Snipe increased from 2 to 35 pairs, whilst Teal (Anas crecca), Shoveller (Anas clypeata) and Garganey (Anas querquedula) became new breeders. Winter waterfowl numbers in winter can now reach 24,000.
The enhancement measures
have also benefited the ditch flora. One nationally rare and three scarce plant
species have all spread at the site.
Habitat
enhancement of the Nene Washes, England, for wintering and breeding waterfowl
through grazing, shepherding and water level management (Source: RSPB, EN and
ITE 1997; see Appendix 8).
The Nene Washes is approximately 1,300 ha of grassland, and is used to store floodwater from the River Nene in eastern England. Most of the area is now a RSPB reserve and consists of wet grasslands restored from arable land by natural regeneration and re-seeding. Only about 8 ha consists of grassland that has never been ploughed. Most of the site does not flood every year.
The
site is important for breeding and wintering waterfowl, and therefore
management objectives have focussed on continuing traditional grazing and
mowing regimes to benefit these species. Water management has also been
undertaken. This has included the rotational clearance of drainage ditches,
raising ditch water levels (and therefore soil water tables) in spring and
maintaining these until autumn, and regular winter flooding of 100 ha of land,
with water retention until spring.
The combination of these measures have provided clear benefits to breeding ducks and waders. A comparison of breeding pairs in 1984 (before artificially retained summer flooding) and 1988 (after summer flooding) shows that numbers have increased substantially for Gadwall (Anas strepera) from 3 to 25, Shoveler (19 to 46), Garganey (1 to 3), Lapwing (22 to 60), Snipe (22 to 120) and Redshank (6 to 80). The nationally rare Black-tailed Godwit (Limosa limosa) has also started breeding (seven pairs in 1988); this colony is the largest in the UK.
In addition the reserve holds internationally important numbers of Bewick’s Swans and nationally important numbers of other species during the winter.
Habitat
enhancement of Loch Gruinart, Scotland for wintering and breeding birds through
grassland management, including the raising of water levels (Source: RSPB, EN
and ITE 1997; see Appendix 9).
Loch Gruinart, is an area of 1,667 ha of mixed habitats on the Isle of Islay off the west coast of Scotland. The site includes 331 ha of wet grassland, and is one of the most important wintering sites in the UK for Barnacle Goose (Branta leucopsis) and Greenland White-fronted Goose (Anser albifrons flavirostris), both of which occur in internationally important numbers. The site became an RPSB reserve in 1984, after which the grassland was initially managed specifically for wintering geese. Habitat management is now more integrated and focuses on enhancing habitat for Corncrake, Chough (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax) and breeding waders, as well as the wintering geese.
The more recent integrated management has involved allowing sub-surface drains to fall into disrepair in low lying fields. As a result of this the area is very wet for most of the year. In addition water levels have been raised on 30 ha of the lowest-lying fields by creating bunds around the fields and installing drop-board sluices. About two-thirds of the area is flooded in winter (30 – 40 cm maximum depth), with 80% of this under shallow flooding and the remainder splash flooded. Water levels are dropped from mid-May to allow cattle to graze.
In addition, about 90 ha of grassland is managed for silage, with rotational autumn re-seeding, which produces the highly nutritious young grassland favoured by geese. Cattle also play an important role on the reserve by aftermath grazing on areas cut for silage and elsewhere.
Since 1990, the more integrated management measures have benefited a wider range of species without reducing the numbers of geese using the reserve. Indeed, fields flooded since 1990 have been increasingly used by Greenland White-fronted Geese, e.g. 400 in 1989/90 compared with a maximum of 1,300 in 1995/96. The recently flooded areas also provide a wintering habitat for several duck species, especially Teal and Wigeon (Anas penelope), but also hold regionally important numbers of Shoveler, Gadwall and Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos). Wader numbers have also increased considerably following the hydrological management, which started in 1989-90. Monitoring data indicate that between 1989 and 1993, breeding Lapwings increased from 140 pairs to 250, Snipe from 17 to 35 pairs and Redshank from 17 to 68 pairs. Corncrakes have also benefited from management, increasing from 0 to 7 calling males over 5 years.
Integrated
management of West Sedgemoor, England, through the management of water levels,
drainage channels and grazing (Source: RSPB, EN and ITE 1997; see Appendix 10).
West Sedgemoor consists of a large area of wet floodplain grassland on the peat soils of the Somerset Levels and Moors in western England. The site is of considerable importance for breeding and wintering birds, however drainage and agricultural improvements resulted in lower water tables and a substantial decline in breeding waders between 1977 and 1987.
Now the majority of the area is under ESA management and over half of the moor is owned by the RSPB. Habitat enhancement measures through refuge creation, water level management, drainage channel management and grassland management have reversed the declines in wader numbers.
Water level management has included controlled shallow winter flooding of selected areas to supplement natural flooding, which varies in extent and duration. Contiguous blocks of land have been bunded off and raised water levels are maintained in these units by pumping, rainfall or flooding. This hydrological isolation allows water levels to be maintained at much higher levels in winter, spring and summer than in the surrounding land. In addition to these measures, ditches are now managed on a three to seven-year rotation during which they are re-profiled to provide shallow margins. Hay cutting and aftermath grazing is carried out on most of the reserve and summer/autumn grazing only is carried out on up to a quarter of the land.
These measures provide guaranteed habitat for wintering waterfowl and provide suitable breeding habitat for waders. As a result wintering waterfowl numbers have increased substantially for most species, with the peak maxima for all waterfowl increasing from 10,400 in the pre-management period (measured from 1985/86 – 1989/90) to 43,347 post-management (measured over 1990/91 – 1994/95). The number of breeding waders has shown similar improvements since management started, with increases for Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus), Snipe (Gallinago gallinago), Redshank (Tringa tetanus) and Curlew (Numenius arquata) compared to the period immediately before hydrological management. Furthermore, Lapwing breeding numbers have increased so much that by 1995 they exceeded the number before the main period of decline (measured in 1977).
Enhancement
of reedbeds for Bitterns (Botaurus
stellaris) at Titchwell Marsh, England, by long-rotational cutting (Source:
Hawke and Jose 1996; see Appendix
11).
Titchwell marsh consists of 24 ha of reedbed which was initially subject to inundation of salt water during spring tides. However, during the 1970’s 10 ha of the reedbed was isolated from tidal influences and then in 1983 this was isolated from the surrounding marshes so that water levels could be manipulated independently within it. The reedbed is now freshwater being fed by springs from the higher landward side.
The reedbed has also been partly opened up with the creation of inverted pools (where the upper organic soil layer is swapped with the underlying mineral layer) and subject to experimental cutting on a five, eight or ten-year basis.
The main aim of managing the reedbed has been to encourage the breeding of the Bittern, which is a nationally rare bird. Within one year of having isolated the freshwater marsh a male was recorded, and one pair bred thereafter every year until 1989. As a result of the isolation of the lagoon, suitable key food resources declined. Eels are a key food resource, but those that are present became too big for Bitterns. A restocking programme using fingerlings was therefore carried out in 1994 and Bitterns have bred again in the 1990’s.
The creation of the reedbed also benefited other rare reedbed birds, with 1-3 pairs of Marsh Harriers (Circus aeruginosus) becoming established and Bearded Tit (Panurus biarmicus) numbers increasing from c. 5 to 15 – 20 pairs.
Management
of the RSPB Minsmere Reserve for Bitterns (Source: Smith et al. 2000; see Appendix 12).
Minsmere is on the east coast of England and is one of the most important of RSPB’s wetland reserves. It contains about 160 ha of reedbeds which were formed when coastal grazing marshes were flooded for defensive purposes in 1940. Bitterns, one of Britain’s rarest breeding birds, started to use the reedbeds after only six years and increased in numbers to 12 – 14 pairs in 1971-73 and 13 in 1976, making Minsmere one of the key breeding sites for the species in the UK. However from then on there was a steady decline to only one bird in 1991.
In fact numbers collapsed across the UK over about the same time and therefore RSPB studies were undertaken to establish the cause of the decline and the species’ habitat requirements. This revealed that there is a clear link between Bittern declines and seral succession of wet reedbeds (i.e. they decline as reedbeds dry out and become invaded by scrub). This is because the species needs wet reedbeds with open water-and-ditch systems to provide feeding opportunities along the reedbed/water interface.
Therefore, to overcome the decline at Minsmere, work was started in 1990/91 to restore the reedbeds to an early successional state. Initial measures included raising water levels in the reedbeds and a rotational programme of reed cutting and scrub coppicing. This was followed in 1994/95 by much more drastic actions over the next 6 winters during which 49 ha of reedbed was lowered and embankments and water level controllers installed. In each reedbed cell a 0.2 – 0.3 m deep layer of reed and peat was scraped back, ditches reprofiled and pools created. Water levels were then maintained at 0.1 – 0.3 m depth over the main sections of the reedbed, with deeper areas provided in the 10.8 km of reprofiled ditches and 8.1 ha of pools.
There is overwhelming evidence that these measures have resulted in the observed increases in Bittern numbers on the reserve over recent years. Between 1990 and 2000 the numbers of males recorded booming (singing) increased from 1 – 2 to 6 – 7 and the number of known breeding females increased from 1 to 9 in 1999 and 6 in 2000.
Farmland
habitat enhancement in Devon, England for the Cirl Bunting Emberiza cirlus (Source: Lock 1999; see Appendix 13).
The Cirl Bunting is now a localised and scarce bird in Britain having declined dramatically over the last fifty or so years, mainly as a result of agricultural intensification. A survey in 1989 revealed that only 130 pairs remained and were virtually confined to south Devon. Research also established that the reasons for the decline were a marked decrease in the retention of cereal stubbles over winter (causing a loss of winter weed-seed food resources), intensification of grassland management (resulting in a decline in invertebrate food required by chicks in summer), continued loss of hedges and scrub (required for nesting) and a reduction in mixed farms (which provide all the required habitat elements).
To enhance habitats for the Cirl Bunting, the RSPB have helped to develop subsidised management agreements with farmers under the Countryside Stewardship Scheme (initially run by the Countryside Commission and then taken over by the Ministry for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food). Under these voluntary agreements farmers are given financial support to grow spring-sown barley with reduced inputs and herbicides and to leave the resulting stubbles over winter. These measures provide crops that support higher densities of invertebrates and broad-leaved weeds, which provided important food resources for the birds.
Initially uptake of the voluntary scheme was slow, but by 1999 80 farmers had entered the scheme and 250 – 300 ha of winter stubbles were being included. Numbers of the Cirl Bunting responded and by 1998, the population had risen to 450 pairs. Furthermore evidence from surveys showed that between 1992 and 1998 increases of 70% had occurred in areas of farmland with Countryside Stewardship Cirl Bunting management agreements, compared to a 2% increase in other areas with Cirl Buntings (but with no agreements). In addition to the effects on the Cirl Bunting, there are also considered to be beneficial impacts on other wildlife, including other farmland birds and rare arable plants.
REFERENCES
Andrews, J. and Kinsman, D. 1990. Gravel pit restoration for wildlife. RSPB, Sandy, UK.
Andrews, J. and Rebane, M. 1994. Farming and wildlife: a practical management handbook. RSPB, Sandy, UK.
Benstead, P.J., Jose, P.V., Joyce, C.B. and Wade, C.B. 1999. European wet grassland. guidelines for management and restoration. RSPB. Sandy.
Crofts, A. and Jefferson, R.G. 1994. The lowland grassland management handbook. English Nature / Wildlife Trusts, Peterborough.
Fog, J., Lampio, T., Rooth, J. and Smart, M. 1982. Managing wetlands and their birds. International Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau, Slimbridge, UK.
Gilbert, O.L. and Anderson, P. 1998. Habitat creation and repair. Oxford University Press, UK.
Gimingham, C.H. 1992. The lowland heathland management handbook. English Nature Science No. 8. English Nature, Peterborough.
Hawke, C.J. and Jose, P.V. 1996. Reedbed management for commercial and wildlife interests. RSPB. Sandy.
Kirby, P. 1992. Habitat management for invertebrates: a practical handbook. Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough.
Lock, L. 1999. Saving the Cirl Bunting … and lots more. British Wildlife Volume 11 Number 1: 17-21.
Merritt
A. (1994). Wetlands, Industry
and Wildlife. A manual of principals and practice. Wildfowl and
Wetlands Trust, Slimbridge.
Peterken, G.F. 1981. Woodland conservation and management. Chapman and Hall, London.
Rowell T A (1988) Peatland Management Handbook, Nature Conservancy Council, Peterborough.
RSPB, EN, and ITE. 1997. The wet grassland guide: managing floodplain and coastal wet grasslands for wildlife. RSPB, Sandy.
RSPB/NRA/RSNC. (1994). The new rivers and wildlife handbook. Sandy, UK: Royal Society for the Protection of Birds.
Smith, K., Welch, G., Tyler, G. Gilbert, G., Hawkins and Hirons, G. 2000. Management of the RSPB Minsmere Reserve reedbeds and its impact on breeding Bitterns. British Wildlife Volume 12, No 1: 16-21.
Sutherland, B. & Hill, D.A. eds. (1995). Managing habitats for conservation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Wetland
restoration bibliography.
DOWNLOAD FROM
www.wetlands.agro.nl/Wetlands_ICU/sgroups/Restoration/Restoration.htm
APPENDIX 2: Grassland management for the Corncrake (Crex crex) in the Shannon Callows, Republic of Ireland. Case Study 4 from Benstead et al. 1999.
APPENDIX 3: Management of wet grassland for breeding waders in Vecdaugava Penisula, Latvia by burning, mowing and grazing. Case Study 10 from Benstead et al. 1999.
APPENDIX 4: Enhancement of Holkham National Nature Reserve, England, through water level control, grazing and mowing. Case Study 7 from RSPB, EN and ITE 1997.
APPENDIX 5: Enhancement of Berney Marshes, England, through water level management. Case Study 8 from RSPB, EN and ITE 1997.
APPENDIX 6: Enhancement of Old Hall Marshes, England, through winter water storage .
Case Study 9 from RSPB, EN and ITE 1997.
APPENDIX 7: Enhancement of Pulborough Brooks, England, through water level management, grazing and mowing. Case Study 10 from RSPB, EN and ITE 1997.
APPENDIX 8: Habitat enhancement of the Nene Washes, England, for wintering and breeding waterfowl through grazing, shepherding and water level management. Case Study 11 from RSPB, EN and ITE 1997.
APPENDIX 9: Habitat enhancement of Loch Gruinart, Scotland for wintering and breeding birds through grassland management, including the raising of water levels. Case Study 13 from RSPB, EN and ITE 1997).
APPENDIX 10: Integrated management of West Sedgemoor, England, through the management of water levels, drainage channels and grazing. Case Study 15 from RSPB, EN and ITE 1997.
APPENDIX 11: Enhancement of reedbeds for Bitterns (Botaurus stellaris) at Titchwell Marsh, England, by long-rotational cutting. Case Study 7 from Hawke and Jose 1996.
APPENDIX 12: Management of RSPB Minsmere Reserve reedbeds and its impact on breeding Bitterns (Smith et al. 2000).
APPENDIX 13: Saving the Cirl Bunting and lots more (Lock 1999).